CS 334 Lecture 8

CS 334 Lecture 8

Contents:

  1. MORE TYPES
      1. Mappings
        1. Arrays
        2. Function abstractions
      2. Powerset
      3. Recursive types
      4. Sequence:
        1. Lists
        2. sequential files
        3. strings:
    1. User-Defined Types
  2. STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC TYPING
  3. TYPES IN HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
    1. FORTRAN
    2. ALGOL 60
    3. Pascal
      1. Pascal's Types
        1. Built-In:
        2. Enumeration types.
        3. Subranges
        4. Arrays
        5. Variant records
        6. Pointers
        7. Sets
        8. Sequential files
      2. Problems with Types in Pascal
        1. Name EquivalenceA
        2. Name Equivalence (called declaration equivalence in text)
        3. Structural Equivalence
    4. Ada
      1. Ada's Types
        1. Built-In:
        2. Enumeration types.
        3. Subranges
        4. Arrays

MORE TYPES

Mappings:

Encompasses functions w/ both infinite and finite domains.

Arrays:

Function abstractions:

S->T ... function f(s:S):T (where S could be n-tuple) Operations: abstraction and application, sometimes composition.

What is difference from an array? Efficiency, esp. w/update.

	update f arg result x = if x = arg then result else f x
or
	update f arg result = fn x => if x = arg then result else f x
Procedure can be treated as having type S -> unit for uniformity.

Powerset:

	set of elt_type;
Typically implemented as bitset or linked list of elts

Operations and relations: All typical set ops, :=, =, subset, .. in ..

Why need base set to be primitive type? What if base set records?

Recursive types:

Examples:
  	tree = Empty | Mktree of int * tree * tree

list = Nil | Cons of int * list

In most lang's built by programmer from pointer types.

Sometimes supported by language (e.g. Miranda, Haskell, ML).

Why can't we have direct recursive types in ordinary imperative languages?

OK if use ref's:

	list = POINTER TO RECORD
			first:integer;
			rest: list
		END;

Recursive types may have many sol'ns

E.g. list = {Nil} union (int x list) has following sol'ns:

  1. finite sequences of integers followed by Nil: e.g., (2,(5,Nil))

  2. finite or infinite sequences, where if finite then end with Nil
Similarly with trees, etc.

Theoretical result: Recursive equations always have a least solution - though infinite set if real recursion.

Can get via finite approximation. I.e.,

   list0 = {Nil}

list1 = {Nil} union (int x list0) = {Nil} union {(n, Nil) | n in int}

list2 = {Nil} union (int x list1) = {Nil} union {(n, Nil) | n in int} union {(m,(n, Nil)) | m, n in int}

...

list = Unionn listn

Very much like unwinding definition of recursive function
	fact = fun n => if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact (n-1)
	
	fact0 = fun n => if n = 0 then 1 else undef
	
	fact1 = fun n => if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact0(n-1)
	      = fun n => if n = 0, 1 then 1 else undef
	      
	fact2 = fun n => if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact1(n-1)
	      = fun n => if n = 0, 1 then 1 else 
	                 if n = 2 then 2 else undef
	...


	fact = Unionn factn

Notice solution to T = A + (T->T) is inconsistent with classical mathematics!
In spite of that, however, it can be used in Computer Science,
	datatype univ = Base of int | Func of (univ -> univ);

Sequence:

Lists

Supported in most fcnal languages

operations: hd, tail, cons, length, etc.

sequential files

File operations: Erase, reset, read, write, check for end.

Persistent data - files.

strings:

ops: <, length, substr

Are strings primitive or composite?

User-Defined Types

User gets to name new types. Why?
  1. more readable

  2. Easy to modify if localized

  3. Factorization - why copy same complex def. over and over (possibly making mistakes)

  4. Added consistency checking in many cases.

STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC TYPING

Static: Most languages use static binding of types to variables, usually in declarations
	var x : integer  {bound at translation time}

The variable can only hold values of that type. (Pascal/Modula-2/C, etc.)

FORTRAN has implicit declaration using naming conventions

Other languages will "infer" type of undeclared variables.

In either case, run real danger of problems due to typos.

Example in ML, if

	datatype Stack ::= Nil | Push of int;
then define
	fun f Push 7 = ...
What error occurs?

Answer: Push is taken as a parameter name, not a constructor.
Therefore f is given type: A -> int -> B rather than the expected: Stack -> B

Dynamic: Variables typically do not have a declared type. Type of value may vary during run-time. Esp. useful w/ heterogeneous lists, etc. (LISP/SCHEME).

Dynamic more flexible, but more overhead since must check type before performing operations (therefore must store tag w/ value).

Dynamic binding found in APL and LISP.

Dynamic binding harder to implement since can't allocate a fixed amount of space for variables. Therefore often implemented as pointer to memory holding value.

TYPES IN HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

FORTRAN

Built-In: Integer, Real, Double Precision, Complex, Logical

no characters or strings, no user-defined of any sort.

Arrays - at most 3-dim'l of built-in type. Subscripts begin at 1

Orig., restricted form of subscript expressions.

No records or sets. Many holes in typing.

ALGOL 60

Built-In: Integer, Real, Boolean, limited strings

Arrays of built-in types - no limit on dim'n, bounds any integers, semi-dynamic arrays

No records or sets. Strongly and statically typed.

Pascal

Pascal's Types

Built-In:

Integer, Real, Boolean, Char, no strings except as packed array of char.

Enumeration types.

Subranges

Guard against errors, save space. (only for discrete types)

Arrays

Hierarchical, but only one-dim'l.
	Array [1..10, 'a'..'z'] of Real = Array [1..10] of Array ['a'..'z'] of Real
	
User fooled into thinking Array[A,B] of C is AxB->C, but really A->B->C.

Any discrete type as index.

No semi-dynamic arrays. Result of 2 principles:

  1. All types must be determinable at compile time.

  2. Array bounds are part of type.

Therefore, must have statically determinable array bounds.

Type of actual parameters must agree w/ type of formals

Therefore, no general sort routines, etc.

The major problem with Pascal

Variant records

as above - introduce holes in type system.

Pointers

must point to objects of specific type (unlike PL/I)

Sets

supported - but often limited implementation.

Sequential files

of any (non-file) type.

Problems with Types in Pascal

1. Holes in typing system with variant records, procedure parameters, and files.
		Procedure x(...; procedure y;...)
:
y(a,2);
Fixed in (new) ANSI standard.

No checking if type of file read in matches what was originally written.

2. Problems w/ type compatibility

Assignment compatibility:

When is x := y legal? x : integer, y : 1..10? reverse?

What if type hex = 0..15; ounces = 0..15;

var x : hex; y : ounces;

Is x := y legal?

Original report said both sides must have identical types.

When are types identical?

Ex.:

    Type    T = Array [1..10] of Integer;
    Var  A, B : Array [1..10] of Integer;
             C : Array [1..10] of Integer;
             D : T;
             E : T;
Which variables have the same type?

Name EquivalenceA

Same type iff have same name --> D, E only

Name Equivalence (called declaration equivalence in text)

Same type iff have same name or declared together

--> A, B and D, E only.

Structural Equivalence

Same type iff have same structure --> all same.

Structural not always easy. Let

   T1 = record a : integer; b : real  end; 
   T2 = record c : integer; d : real  end;
   T3 = record b : real; a : integer  end;
Which are the same?

Worse:

   T = record info : integer; next : ^T  end; 
   U = record info : integer; next : ^V  end; 
   V = record info : integer; next : ^U  end; 

Ada uses Name EquivalenceA

Pascal & Modula-2 use Name Equivalence for most part. Check!

Modula-3 uses Structural Equivalence

Two types are assignment compatible iff

  1. have equivalent types or

  2. one subrange of other or

  3. both subranges of same base type.

Ada

Ada's Types

Built-In:

Integer, Real, Boolean, Char, strings.

Enumeration types.

Character and boolean are predefined enumeration types.

e.g., type Boolean is (False, True)

Can overload values:

    Color is (Red, Blue, Green)
    Mood is (Happy, Blue, Mellow)
If ambiguous can qualify w/ type names:
    Color(Blue), Mood(Blue)
Subranges Declared w/range attribute.

i.e., Hex is range 0..15

Other attributes available to modify type definitions:

	Accurate is digits 20
	Money is delta 0.01 range 0.00 .. 1000.00     -- fixed pt!
Can extract type attributes:
	Hex'FIRST -> 1
	Hex'LAST  -> 15
Can initialize variables in declaration:
	declare k : integer := 0

Arrays

"Constrained" - semi-static like Pascal
	type Two_D is array (1..10, 'a'..'z') of Real 
or "Unconstrained" (what we called semi-dynamic earlier)
	type Real_Vec is array (INTEGER range <>) of REAL;
Generalization of open array parameters of MODULA-2.

Of course, to use, must specify bounds,

	declare x : Real_Vec (1..10)
or, inside procedure:
   Procedure sort (Y: in out Real_Vec; N: integer) is -- Y is open array parameter
      Temp1 : Real_Vec(1..N);             -- depends on N
      Temp2 : Real_Vec (Y'FIRST..Y'LAST); -- depends on parameter Y
      begin 
         for I in Y'FIRST ..Y'LAST loop
            ...
         end loop;
         ... 
      end sort;
Note Ada also has local blocks (like ALGOL 60)

All unconstrained types (w/ parameters) elaborated at block entry (semi-dynamic)

String type is predefined open array of chars:

	array (POSITIVE range <>) of character;

Can take slice of 1-dim'l array.

E.g., if

    Line : string(1..80)
Then can write
    Line(10..20) := ('a','b',.'c','d','e','f','g','h','i','j')  
                                         -- gives assignment to slice
Because of this structure assignment, can have constant arrays.